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  Legal Instruments   

This section provides a list of international conventions and regional/bilateral agreements to which each country is a signatory, as well as national legislation that deals with movement, migration, asylum and human rights. Each listing includes a PDF/ link to a publically accessible document of the convention/law mentioned.
  International Conventions:

General International Law

Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, 24 April 1963 (entered into force 19 March 1967) 596 U.N.T.S 261. Ratified 1965

PDF

 

International Criminal Law

Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 2 December 1949 (entered into force 25 July 1951) 96 U.N.T.S. 271. Ratified 1959

PDF

Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, G.A. 39/46, Treaty Series, Vol. 1465, p. 85 (1987). 
Ratified 1986
PDF

Protocol amending the Slavery Convention, 25 September 1926 (entered into force 7 December 1953) 182 U.N.T.S. 51. Signed 1954, ratified 1954

PDF


Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 15 November 2000 (entered into force 15 November 2000) 2241 U.N.T.S. 507 [Palermo Protocol]. Ratified 2005  

PDF

 

Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 15 November 2000 (entered into force 15 December 2000) 2237 U.N.T.S 319 [Palermo Protocol] Signed 2002, Ratified 2004

PDF

United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, 15 November 2000 (entered into force 29 September 2003) 2225 U.N.T.S 209. Signed 2002, Ratified 2004

PDF

 

Slavery Convention, 25 September 1926 (entered into force 7 July 1955), 60 L.N.T.S. 253. Signed 1954

PDF

 

International Human Rights Law 

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 18 December 1979, 1249 U.N.T.S 513 [CEDAW]. Signed 1980, Ratified 1981 

PDF

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 7 March 1966, 660 U.N.T.S 195 [CERD]. Signed 1966, Ratified 1967  

PDF

Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, 18 December 1990 (1 July 2003) 2220 U.N.T.S. 3 [Migrant Workers Convention]. Ratified 1993 

PDF

 

Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3 [CRC]. Signed 1990, Ratified 1990  

PDF

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [ICCPR].

Signed 1967, Ratified 1982
PDF

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966 (entered into force 3 Jan 1976) 993 U.N.T.S. 3 [ICESCR].

Signed 1967, Ratified 1982

PDF

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/217 A (III), 10 December 1948, Art 14. [UDHR].

PDF

 

International Humanitarian Law/Law of War

Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 12 August 1949 (entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 U.N.T.S. 31 [First Geneva Convention].

Signed 1949, Ratified 1952

Link to Conv.

Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 12 August 1949 (entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 U.N.T.S. 85 [Second Geneva Convention]. Signed 1949, Ratified 1952

Link to Conv.

Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 August 1949 (entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 U.N.T.S. 135 [Third Geneva Convention].

Signed 1949, Ratified 1952

Link to Conv.

Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 August 1949 (entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 U.N.T.S. 287 [Fourth Geneva Convention].

Signed 1949, Ratified 1952

Link to Conv.

 

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 8 June 1977 (entered into force Dec. 7, 1978.) 1125 U.N.T.S. 3 [Protocol I]. Signed 1977, Ratified 1992

Link to Protocol.

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978) 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 [Protocol II].

Signed 1977, Ratified 1992

Link to Protocol

International Labor Law 

ILO Convention C 111 Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (1958). Ratified 1960

Link to Conv.

 

ILO Convention C 29 Forced or Compulsory Labour Convention (1932). Ratified 1955

Link to Conv.

ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration (2005).

Link to Framework

 

International Refugee Law 

Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, 189 U.N.T.S. 150. [Refugee Convention]. Ratified 1981
PDF


Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, 4 October 1967, 606 U.N.T.S. 267 [Refugee Protocol] Ratified 1981. PDF


International Trade Law 

Protocol to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) (Movement of Natural Persons), 16 October, 1995 (entered into force 26 July 1996), L167, P. 43 [Protocol III]

PDF


 



 

 

 

  Regional and Bilateral Agreements:

Regional Agreements

OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (1969)
Signed N/A, Ratified 1980
PDF 

Cooperation Agreement on Manpower between the Arab Republic of Egypt and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (1985)
PDF_Arabic

Agreement on Tourism between the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt and the Government of the Democratic Republic of Sudan (1975)
PDF_Arabic

Agreement on the movement of labor among the Arab League nations (1969)
PDF_Arabic

Social Security Agreement between the Arab States (1981)
PDF_Arabic

 

 

Irregular Migration & Readmission Agreements 

Cooperation agreement on readmission between the government of the Italian Republic and the government of the Arab republic of Egypt (2007) 
Link to agreement_EgLink to Agreement_It

 


Labor Agreements

Memorandum of Understanding Between the Government of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt concerning the organization of migration of Egyptians (2007)
ILO PDF_Eg

Agreement on Freedom of Movement, Residence, Work and Property Ownership between the Governments of the Arab Republic of Egypt and the Republic of Sudan (2004).
PDF_Arabic

Exchange of Labor agreement between Sudan and Egypt (2002).
PDF_Arabic

Labor Agreement between Egypt and Kuwait (2000)
PDF_Arabic

Labor Agreement between Lebanon and Egypt (1993).
PDF_Arabic

Agreement between Sudan and Egypt on exchange of labor (1969)
PDF_Arabic

Agreement to extend labor agreements between Syria and Egypt before joining the Arab League (1960).
PDF_Arabic

Cooperation Labor Agreement between the United Arab Emirates and Egypt (1988).
PDF_Arabic

 

 

Social  Security Agreements

Social Security Agreement between Egypt and the Netherlands (2003)
Link to Official Journal

Cooperation Agreement between Egypt and Sudan in the Field of Insurance and Welfare and Social Development (2002)

Protocol between the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt on the Social Protection of Students (1990)
PDF_French

Social Security Agreement between Cyprus  and Egypt (1988)
Link to Agreement

Cooperation Agreement between the Ministry of Labor and Migration of Egypt and the Ministry  of Social Affairs in Morocco (1997).
PDF_Arabic

Cooperation Agreement between the Ministry of Labor and Migration of Egypt and the Ministry  of Social Affairs in Syria (1998).
PDF_Arabic


Other Relevant Agreements

Agreement in the form of an Exchange of Letters between the Government of the French Republic and the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt amending Protocol 3 annexed to the Convention Agreement on cultural, scientific and technical co-operation (1996)
PDF_French

Convention between the French Republic and the Arab Republic in Egypt on Judicial cooperation in civil matters, including personal status and in social, commercial and administrative matters (1982)
PDF_French

Cooperation Agreement between the Government of the French Republic and the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt on Tourism (1979)
PDF_French

Agreement on Cultural, Scientific and Technical Cooperation between the government of the French Republic and the government of the United Arab Republic (1968)
 PDF_French

Agreement on residency and work permit between Libya and Egypt (1990).
PDF_Arabic

Cultural cooperation agreement between Morocco and Egypt (1990).
PDF_Arabic

  National Legislation:

Egyptian Nationals 

Article 62 of the 2014 Egyptian Constitution guarantees that citizens are free to move, emigrate and reside elsewhere 
PDF_Ar

Presidential Decree No. 574 of 1981 establishes the  Ministry of State for Emigration Affairs which coordinates a migration strategy oriented toward national development, sponsors Egyptians going abroad and provides them with a number of services
PDF_Ar

Ministry of Manpower and Emigration Decree No. 181 of 2008 establishes certain rules and regulations for recruitment agencies that are recruiting Egyptians labor workers, especially to Saudi Arabia 
 
PDF_Ar

 

Migration and Labor 

Emigration and Sponsoring Egyptians Abroad Law No. 111 of 1983 consists of five chapters and covers general provisions applicable to all migrants, duration of stay abroad and rights of migrants (temporary versus permanent stay abroad), and privileges of migrants and return migrants
PDF_Ar

Presidential Decree No. 165 of 1996  transferred the responsibilities of the Ministry of State for Emigration Affairs to the Ministry of Manpower and Employment (Currently, Ministry of Manpower and Emigration)
PDF_Ar

Resolution No. 2000 of 1997 establishes the Higher Committee for Migration

Legislative Order No. 114 on respecting the conditions of immigration in the public sector 

 Labor Law. No 12 of 2003, Articles 76-79 on employing foreign nationals 
Link to Law

Ministry of Manpower and Immigration Decree No. 111 of 2005 indicating that all new applicants for work permits applying outside of Egypt will not be authorized work permits
PDF_Ar

Ministry of Manpower and Migration Decree No. 49 of 2008 amending paragraph 1 pf Article 5 of Decree No. 136 of 2003 on granting work permits to foreigners 
PDF_Ar

Decree 90 of 2011 amending certain provisions of Labor Law No. 136 of 2003 makes three amendments to the previous labor regulations. First, companies are obliged to hire an Egyptian in preference a foreigner if the Egyptian could be trained to do the job in three to six months. Second, a foreigner cannot hold the same job for more than three years. Third, each foreigner is required to train two Egyptians. The decree did not distinguish among sectors or skill levels
PDF_Ar


Labor Law No. 136 of 2003 states that number of non-Egyptian employees in any establishment must not exceed 10 percent of the total work force
PDF_Ar


 

 

 

 


  Statistics and Figures:   

This section provides links to regularly updated sites that provide statistics on migrants and refugees in different countries around the world.

Below are links to various databases that provide statistics and figures relevant to the movement of people in and out of Egypt:  

The World Bank 
WB-Egypt

UNFPA Migration Indicator 
UNFPA-Migration

UNHCR Statistics Database  
UNHCR-Stats

Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
IDMC-Egypt

  Bibliography   

This section includes a comprehensive list of sources and links to journal articles, books, webpages, etc. for each country in the database that address migration and refugee topics within the context of education, health, legal, psychosocial, political, among others. Each listed source includes a brief description of the material and a link.

  Migrants:

Link to Researchers

Adams, Richard. "Worker Remittances and Inequality in Rural Egypt." Economic Development and Cultural Change 38.1 (1989): 45-71. Link to Article

Keyword: economic development, remittances, inequality, rural, Egypt, migrant, workers

This article attempts to overcome the various problems involving measuring the implications of remittances on rural households by proposing an alternative framework and technique for measuring the impact of remittance on rural income distribution. it examines the implications of  international remittances on rural socioeconomic order in Minya, Egypt. The data for the study was extrapolated from 1,000 households surveys in Minya Province between 1986-87. The study finds that remittances from abroad had a negative impact on rural households income distribution both in gross and per capita terms. 

Chantal, Thomas. “Migrant Domestic Workers in Egypt: A Case Study of the Economic Family in Global Context.” The American Journal of Comparative Law 58.4 (2010): 987-1022. Link to Article 

Keyword: migrant, domestic, workers, Egypt, family, law

This study links the legal framework affecting labor conditions of sub-Saharan Africa asylum seekers who are migrant domestic workers in Egypt  with a broader question of 'family' in a global political and economic context. The author argues that domestic and international law fail to provide adequate assistance to bargain in securing livelihood strategies, but these frameworks inevitably construct the environment for them: "foreground" rules of employment and contract law (but not family law) affect the bargaining environment for migrant domestic workers; "background" rules, those related to sovereignty and immigration, also crucially influence the bargaining environment. 

El-Shaarawi, Nadia. "Living an Uncertain Future: Temporality, Uncertainty, and Well-Being among Iraqi Refugees in Egypt." Social Analysis 59.1 (2015): 38-56Link to Article

Keyword: Egypt, Iraqi refugees, uncertain, temporality, resettlement, urban refugees

This article considers the interplay of temporal and spatial uncertainty in the experience of Iraqi refugees in Cairo. The author argues that by examining how Iraqis understand displacement as uncertain, an attunement to temporality provides an avenue for understanding the refugees' experiences of displacement. The author finds that Iraqi refugees speak of exile in Cairo as 'living in transit,' and thus await resettlement in a third country, a process which often renders their future more uncertain. 

 Geddes, Andrew. "Governing Migration from a Distance: Interactions Between Climate, Migration and Security in the South Mediterranean." European Security 24.3 (2015): 473-490. Link to Article

Keyword: environmental refugees, environmental migrants, environmental displacement, security, Egypt, South Mediterranean, Climate change 

The Article asses the link between the environment, and the security and migration nexus by assessing the EU's external governance policies in the “South Mediterranean Partner Countries” (SMPCs): Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Syria, and Tunisia. The author argues that, given the data, migration triggered by climate changes interacts with social, economic and political drivers of migration. He further finds that implications of such movements exposes migrants to further risks and more displacement. 

Henry, Hani. "African Refugees in Egypt: Trauma, Loss, and Cultural Adjustment." Death studies  36.7 (2012): 583-604. (Summary adapted from resource) Link to Article

Keyword: trauma, loss, cultural adjustment, psychosocial, psycho-social, African Refugees, Egypt

This article focuses on the implications of traumas experienced by African refugees before migrating to Cairo and their influence on integration in Egypt. The study is based on six interviews with African refugees who discussed the circumstances of their departure, as well as their experiences in Egypt. The author finds that all participants kept bonds with their native culture, however, these bonds were manifested differently depending on the refugee's ability to assimilate his/her trauma and mourn cultural losses. Those who assimilated their trauma and mourned cultural losses developed bonds with their native cultures that helped them integrate in Egypt and tolerate the country's political conditions. Those who ere not able to assimilate their trauma, while also maintained bonds with their native culture that provided them with solace, they could not integrate in Egypt. 

 Jureidini, Ray. "Irregular Workers in Egypt: Migrant and Refugee Domestic Workers." International Journal on Multicultural Societies 11.2 (2009): 75-90. (Summary Adapted from resource) Link to Article

Keyword: irregular migrants, Egypt, domestic workers, legal reforms, migrant convention 

This study provides a brief history of the legislation and regulation of domestic work in Egypt, including the government's position in relation to its ratification of the international Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant workers and Members of Their Families. This is followed by a brief and selective summary of the results of a survey of Egyptian, Eritrean, Ethiopian, Nigerian, Sudanese, Filipina and Indonesian domestic workers in Egypt that demonstrates the significant rights violations, including racial and sexual abuse, of workers in Cairo.

Jureidini, Ray. "Regulation of Migration in Egypt." Middle East Institute. (2010). Link to Page

Keyword: migration, Egypt, legal, regulation

The article provide details on the national and international framework regulating migration in Egypt. 

Katarzyna, Grabska, "Marginalization in Urban Spaces of the Global South: Urban Refugees in Cairo." Journal of Refugee Studies 19.3 (2006): 287-307. (Summary Adapted from resource) Link to Article

Keyword: marginalization, Sudanese refugees, Cairo, urban refugees, 

This paper explores the marginalization of Sudanese refugees in Cairo arguing that while socially, economically, and politically marginalized, urban refugees contribute to the transformation of urban spaces in Cairo. In regards to legal security and livelihood coping strategies, the paper demonstrates that legal status of refugees makes a little difference. However, despite their marginalization and lack of adequate assistance, refugees find creative ways of managing their livelihoods, attributing culturally and economically to their host society. The author, thus, concludes that refugees are social agents, not an economic burden for their host country.

McBride, Kelly, and Lindsey Kingston. "Legal Invisibility and the Revolution: Statelessness in Egypt." Human Rights Review 15.2 (2014): 159-75. link to Article 

Keyword: stateless, citizenship, Egypt, legal invisibility 
 
Drawing on data collected from two years of fieldwork, this study highlights the plight of stateless people in Egypt, a country with harsh punishments for illegal presence, entry and exit. The study further evaluates potential solutions for eliminating stateless in Egypt and protecting the rights of stateless people. 

Meffert, Susan M., and Charles R. Marmar. "Darfur Refugees in Cairo: Mental Health and Interpersonal Conflict in the Aftermath of Genocide." Journal of Interpersonal Violence 24.11 (2009): 1835-48. PDF

 Keywords: refugee, trauma, violence, Sudan, Darfur

The article discusses the gaps in mental health care and develops an understanding of the emotional and relationship problems of Darfur refugees in Cairo.The author argues that the refugee mental health care system has gaps in outpatient services. There is moderate to severe emotional distress among many Darfur refugees, including symptoms of depression and trauma, and interpersonal conflict.

Sadek, Sara. "Safe Haven Or Limbo? Iraqi Refugees in Egypt." International Journal of Contemporary Iraqi Studies 5.2 (2011): 185-97. Link to Article

Keyword: Iraqi, refugees, Egypt, refugee regime 

This article discusses the situation of Iraqi refugees in Egypt, their displacement, choosing Egypt as a destination country, and their socio-economic conditions. The article places the Iraq refugee experience within a broader context of the refugee regime in Egypt and the interactions between the refugees and host society. 

EU Neighborhood Migration Report." European University Institute & Migration Policy Center & Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies. Fargues, Philippe (Eds). PDF

Keyword: EU, Migration, neighboring 

This report provides details on the demographic, legal, and socio-economic migration framework of 18 countries neighboring the EU. These countries are Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Egypt, Georgia, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Moldova, Morocco, Palestine, Russia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey and Ukraine. 

 


  Refugees:

Humphris, Rachel. "Refugees and the Rashaida: Human Smuggling and Trafficking From Eritrea to Sudan and Egypt." UNHCR (2013). PDF

Keywords: refugees, Rashaida, smuggling, human, trafficking, Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt 

This paper focuses on the movement of people from Eritrea to East Sudan, through the Sinai desert to reach Israel. First, it provides a background on the motivations and aspirations to leave Eritrea, followed by the role of smugglers, especially Rashaida of East Sudan arguing that participating in the network of human smuggling is a product, and not a cause, of instability in the region. Finally, the paper concludes with challenges and recommendations. 

Jureidini, Ray. "Irregular Workers in Egypt: Migrant and Refugee Domestic Workers." International Journal on Multicultural Societies 11.2 (2009): 75-90. Link to Article

Keyword: irregular migrants, Egypt, domestic workers, legal reforms, migrant convention 

This study provides a brief history of the legislation and regulation of domestic work in Egypt, including the government's position in relation to its ratification of the international Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant workers and Members of Their Families. This is followed by a brief and selective summary of the results of a survey of Egyptian, Eritrean, Ethiopian, Nigerian, Sudanese, Filipina and Indonesian domestic workers in Egypt that demonstrates the significant rights violations, including racial and sexual abuse, of workers in Cairo.

Sharp, Marina. "The Insecurity of Eritreans and Ethiopians in Cairo." 16 International Journal of Refugee Law 661 (2004). Link to Article

Keyword: Eritreans, Ethiopians, inequality, insecurity, UNHCR, Cairo, Egypt, protection, refoulement, detention, deportation 

This article examines the protection risks that Eritrean and Ethiopian asylum seekers face, mainly surrounding detention and depredation. While insecurities are not solely attributed to UNHCR, the author argues that UNHCR's handling of the refugee determination status for Eritreans and Ethiopians makes it complicit in their insecurities and its inability to provide them with durable solutions render them more vulnerable to refoulement.

  Statelessness:

Berkeley, Bill. "Stateless People, Violent States." World Policy Journal 26.1 (2009): 3-15. Link to Webpage

Keyword: nationality, laws, mothers, fathers, citizenship

  The journal gives an overview of the history, legal, and current situation of statelessness. As a way of reducing statelessness in Egypt, as well as Morocco and

Algeria, national laws have been changed so that children can receive citizenship through their mother.